Explanation
Exercises
Clause types: contrast, purpose, cause & result
B2 Pre-Advanced

CONTRAST — showing difference

LinkerFormExampleRegister
although / even though linker + S + V Even though we played poorly, we won. neutral
however / nevertheless / nonetheless Start new sentence; follow with comma We didn’t like the hotel. However, the view was amazing. formal-ish
yet , yet + S + V (or after and) She was exhausted, yet she kept working. neutral
despite / in spite of + noun / -ing • + the fact that + clause Despite the rain, we stayed. / In spite of the fact that it rained, we stayed. neutral
while / whereas linker + S + V (start or mid; comma) While she loves cooking, he prefers take-away. formal-ish
still (adverb) mid-position It was raining; we still went for a walk. spoken

Punctuation: no comma after although/even though. Place a comma after however / nevertheless / nonetheless. Despite ≠ despite of (❌).

PURPOSE — why we do something

LinkerFormExampleRegister
to to + V He studied hard to pass. neutral
in order (not) to / so as (not) to + V They left early so as not to miss the train. more formal
in order for in order for + N/Pron + to V We raised funds in order for the team to travel. formal
so that so that + S + (modal) V We left early so that we could park nearby. neutral
for (purpose) / for + -ing (function) for + N / for + V-ing We went to the lake for a swim. This tool is for cutting metal. neutral
in case in case + S + V (precaution) Take an umbrella in case it rains. (≠ if) spoken/neutral

Meaning tips: so that commonly takes a modal (can/could/will/would). In case = do X because you think Y might happen.

CAUSE / REASON — why something happens

LinkerFormExampleRegister
because because + S + V We stayed in because it was snowing. neutral
since / as linker + clause (often at the start) Since the roads were closed, we worked from home. more formal
because of because of + N The flight was delayed because of fog. neutral
due to / owing to / on account of + N The event was cancelled due to lack of funds. formal
thanks to thanks to + N (positive cause) Thanks to your help, we finished early. positive tone

Punctuation: when the reason clause comes first (Because/Since/As...), add a comma before the main clause.

RESULT — what happens because of something

LinkerFormExampleRegister
so ..., so + S + V We had nothing to do, so we watched a film. very common
for this reason sentence-initial + comma For this reason, we moved the meeting online. formal-ish
as a result / consequently / therefore usually sentence-initial + comma; also mid-position for therefore/consequently The flight was cancelled. As a result, we stayed overnight. We have therefore issued refunds. formal
so … that / such (a) … that so + adj/adv + that / such (a) + adj + N + that It was so cold that the lake froze. It was such a noisy room that nobody could sleep. neutral

Meaning: these linkers explain outcomes. So/such…that express a strong degree that causes the result.

Common pitfalls & quick checks

  • No comma after although/even though. ✔ Although it rained, we played. ❌ Although, it rained…
  • Despite / in spite of take a noun or -ing: despite being late. Use the fact that to follow with a full clause.
  • However is adverbial: place it after a full stop/semicolon and follow with a comma: …; however, …
  • In case ≠ if: it expresses precaution (Take cash in case the card doesn’t work).
  • Due to / owing to / on account of are more formal than because of; avoid them in very casual speech.

Register at a glance

  • informal/spoken
    so, still, yet
  • neutral
    although/even though, because, because of, while, for + N, so that
  • formal-ish → formal
    since/as (reason), nevertheless, consequently, therefore, owing to, in order (not) to

Choose linkers to match the tone of your writing (email to a friend vs. report/exam essay).

Exercises:
1
2
3

Clause types: contrast, purpose, cause & result

Choose the correct option to complete each sentence below.
1
the hotel was fully booked, they found us a room.
2
I left early I could catch the first train.
3
We cancelled the picnic it started pouring with rain.
4
It rained all night; , the match was postponed.
5
the heavy traffic, we arrived on time.
6
She whispered wake the baby.
7
you’re here, could you help me carry these boxes?
8
My sister loves skiing, I prefer snowboarding.
9
It was very foggy, we missed our flight.
10
I turned off notifications get distracted.

Clause types: contrast, purpose, cause & result

Choose the correct options for the gaps in these sentences.
1
____ the forecast warned of storms, the match went ahead.
A.
B.
C.
2
She spoke slowly ____ everyone could follow her explanation.
A.
B.
C.
3
We took a taxi ____ it was raining heavily.
A.
B.
C.
4
The streets were icy, ____ several accidents happened.
A.
B.
C.
5
____ his lack of experience, he handled the negotiation well.
A.
B.
C.
6
I left early ____ avoid the traffic.
A.
B.
C.
7
____ she had completed the form, the process was faster.
A.
B.
C.
8
It was ____ a convincing argument that nobody objected.
A.
B.
C.
9
My sister prefers hiking, ____ I’d rather stay by the pool.
A.
B.
C.
10
He kept running ____ he was exhausted.
A.
B.
C.

Clause types: contrast, purpose, cause & result

Rewrite the second part of the sentence without repeating the verb or verb phrase. Include ‘to’ when it is required. Don’t include ‘to’ when it can be dropped.
althougheven thoughwhereaswhile despitein spite of becausesinceas because ofdue toowing to sothereforeas a resultconsequentlyhence toin order toso as to so thatin order that
1
the forecast looked promising, the storm hit the coast by noon.
2
We introduced a pilot program reduce onboarding time.
3
Meetings ran long two key engineers were absent.
4
The server was patched at dawn, the morning traffic was unaffected.
5
the heavy rain, the festival went ahead.
6
The match was postponed a power outage.
7
She prefers quiet cafés, her partner likes lively bars.
8
I left early I could catch the last bus.
9
Sales doubled last quarter; , we expanded the team.
10
He presented clear visuals everyone would follow the data-heavy parts.