Explanation
Exercises
Clause types: contrast, purpose, cause & result
B2 Pre-Advanced

CONTRAST — showing difference

LinkerFormExampleRegister
although / even though linker + S + V Even though we played poorly, we won. neutral
however / nevertheless / nonetheless Start new sentence; follow with comma We didn’t like the hotel. However, the view was amazing. formal-ish
yet , yet + S + V (or after and) She was exhausted, yet she kept working. neutral
despite / in spite of + noun / -ing • + the fact that + clause Despite the rain, we stayed. / In spite of the fact that it rained, we stayed. neutral
while / whereas linker + S + V (start or mid; comma) While she loves cooking, he prefers take-away. formal-ish
still (adverb) mid-position It was raining; we still went for a walk. spoken

Punctuation: no comma after although/even though. Place a comma after however / nevertheless / nonetheless. Despite ≠ despite of (❌).

PURPOSE — why we do something

LinkerFormExampleRegister
to to + V He studied hard to pass. neutral
in order (not) to / so as (not) to + V They left early so as not to miss the train. more formal
in order for in order for + N/Pron + to V We raised funds in order for the team to travel. formal
so that so that + S + (modal) V We left early so that we could park nearby. neutral
for (purpose) / for + -ing (function) for + N / for + V-ing We went to the lake for a swim. This tool is for cutting metal. neutral
in case in case + S + V (precaution) Take an umbrella in case it rains. (≠ if) spoken/neutral

Meaning tips: so that commonly takes a modal (can/could/will/would). In case = do X because you think Y might happen.

CAUSE / REASON — why something happens

LinkerFormExampleRegister
because because + S + V We stayed in because it was snowing. neutral
since / as linker + clause (often at the start) Since the roads were closed, we worked from home. more formal
because of because of + N The flight was delayed because of fog. neutral
due to / owing to / on account of + N The event was cancelled due to lack of funds. formal
thanks to thanks to + N (positive cause) Thanks to your help, we finished early. positive tone

Punctuation: when the reason clause comes first (Because/Since/As...), add a comma before the main clause.

RESULT — what happens because of something

LinkerFormExampleRegister
so ..., so + S + V We had nothing to do, so we watched a film. very common
for this reason sentence-initial + comma For this reason, we moved the meeting online. formal-ish
as a result / consequently / therefore usually sentence-initial + comma; also mid-position for therefore/consequently The flight was cancelled. As a result, we stayed overnight. We have therefore issued refunds. formal
so … that / such (a) … that so + adj/adv + that / such (a) + adj + N + that It was so cold that the lake froze. It was such a noisy room that nobody could sleep. neutral

Meaning: these linkers explain outcomes. So/such…that express a strong degree that causes the result.

Common pitfalls & quick checks

  • No comma after although/even though. ✔ Although it rained, we played. ❌ Although, it rained…
  • Despite / in spite of take a noun or -ing: despite being late. Use the fact that to follow with a full clause.
  • However is adverbial: place it after a full stop/semicolon and follow with a comma: …; however, …
  • In case ≠ if: it expresses precaution (Take cash in case the card doesn’t work).
  • Due to / owing to / on account of are more formal than because of; avoid them in very casual speech.

Register at a glance

  • informal/spoken
    so, still, yet
  • neutral
    although/even though, because, because of, while, for + N, so that
  • formal-ish → formal
    since/as (reason), nevertheless, consequently, therefore, owing to, in order (not) to

Choose linkers to match the tone of your writing (email to a friend vs. report/exam essay).

Exercises:
1
2
3

Clause types: contrast, purpose, cause, and result

Choose the correct option to complete the following clauses of contrast, purpose, reason, and result.
1
the hotel was fully booked, they found us a room.
2
I left early I could catch the first train.
3
We cancelled the picnic it started pouring with rain.
4
It rained all night; , the match was postponed.
5
the heavy traffic, we arrived on time.
6
She whispered wake the baby.
7
you’re here, could you help me carry these boxes?
8
My sister loves skiing, I prefer snowboarding.
9
It was very foggy, we missed our flight.
10
I turned off notifications get distracted.

Clause types: contrast, purpose, cause, and result

Choose the correct option for the clauses of contrast, purpose, reason and result below.
1
____ the forecast warned of storms, the match went ahead.
A.
B.
C.
2
She spoke slowly ____ everyone could follow her explanation.
A.
B.
C.
3
We took a taxi ____ it was raining heavily.
A.
B.
C.
4
The streets were icy, ____ several accidents happened.
A.
B.
C.
5
____ his lack of experience, he handled the negotiation well.
A.
B.
C.
6
I left early ____ avoid the traffic.
A.
B.
C.
7
____ she had completed the form, the process was faster.
A.
B.
C.
8
It was ____ a convincing argument that nobody objected.
A.
B.
C.
9
My sister prefers hiking, ____ I’d rather stay by the pool.
A.
B.
C.
10
He kept running ____ he was exhausted.
A.
B.
C.

Clause types: contrast, purpose, cause, and result

Fill in the gaps in the text with words from the list.
althougheven thoughwhereaswhile despitein spite of becausesinceas because ofdue toowing to sothereforeas a resultconsequentlyhence toin order toso as to so thatin order that
1
the forecast looked promising, the storm hit the coast by noon.
2
We introduced a pilot program reduce onboarding time.
3
Meetings ran long two key engineers were absent.
4
The server was patched at dawn, the morning traffic was unaffected.
5
the heavy rain, the festival went ahead.
6
The match was postponed a power outage.
7
She prefers quiet cafés, her partner likes lively bars.
8
I left early I could catch the last bus.
9
Sales doubled last quarter; , we expanded the team.
10
He presented clear visuals everyone would follow the data-heavy parts.